Lee HK and Yang J, Axial capacity of open‑ended steel pipe piles in sand꞉ comparison of analytical methods and FEM modelling, HKIE Transactions, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Regular Issue), Article THIE-2025-0032.R1, 2026, 10.33430/V33N1THIE‑2025‑0032
This study investigates the axial capacity of open‑ended steel pipe piles in sand through a combined analytical and numerical approach. A database of 26 field load tests from global offshore and nearshore projects was established to evaluate five design methods꞉ API (2007), GEO (2006), ICP‑05, UWA‑05, and HKU‑12. Comparative analyses show that CPT‑based methods significantly outperform traditional technical standards, with lower prediction scatter and improved consistency in estimating total, base, and shaft capacities. Among these, HKU‑12 achieved the closest agreement with measured capacities, followed by UWA‑05, while API and GEO exhibited large variances due to limited consideration of soil plugging and simplified stress correlations. To complement the analytical evaluation, 3D FEM models were developed in PLAXIS to simulate installation‑induced deformation and soil plugging. The simulations reproduced realistic load–settlement responses and showed that axial capacity is highly sensitive to the prescribed installation displacements. Best‑fit results required much smaller displacement inputs than those suggested in an earlier study, indicating that installation effects for open‑ended piles differ fundamentally from other displacement piles. Overall, the study demonstrates the accuracy of refined CPT‑based methods and presents the potential of FEM modelling in improving the reliability of offshore pile design.
[1] American Petroleum Institute (2007). Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms – working stress design. USA꞉ American Petroleum Institute.
[2] Dijkstra J, Broere W and van Tol A F (2006). Numerical investigation into stress and strain development around a displacement pile in sand. Proceedings of the sixth European Conference on Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 595‑600.
[3] Geotechnical Engineering Office (2006). GEO Publication No. 1/2006 ‑ Foundation Design and Construction. Hong Kong꞉ HKSAR Government.
[4] Han F, Ganju E, Prezzi M, Salgado R and Zaheer M (2020). Axial Resistance of open‑ended pipe pile driven in gravelly sand. Géotechnique, 70(2), pp.138‑152
[5] Hu Z, Huang S, Liu W and Si J (2020). Study on Shaft Friction of Open‑ended Steel Pipe Piles for Offshore
Wind Farms Based on Field Tests, J. Geotech. Eng.,15(1), pp. 47‑54.
[6] Jamiokowski M, Lo Presti D C F and Manassero M (2003). Evaluation of Relative Density and Shear Strength of Sands from CPT and DMT. ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication, 119, pp. 201–238.
[7] Jardine R J, Chow F, Overy R and Strading J R (2005). ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays. London꞉ Thomas Telford.
[8] Kikuchi Y, Mizutani M and Yamashita H (2007). Vertical bearing capacity of large diameter steel pipe piles. In꞉ Proceedings of Advances in Deep Foundations. London꞉ Taylor and Francis, pp. 177‑182.
[9] Ko J and Jeong S (2015). Plugging effect of openended piles in sandy soil. Can. Geotech. J., 52(5), pp.535‑547.
[10] Ko J, Jeong S and Lee J K (2015). Large deformation FE analysis of driven steel pipe piles with soil plugging. Computers Geotechnics., 71, pp. 82‑97
[11] Lehane B M and Randolph M F (2002). Estimation of a minimum base resistance for driven pipe piles in siliceous sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., ASCE, 128(3), pp. 198‑205.
[12] Lehane B M, Schneider J A and Xu X (2005a). CPT based design of driven piles in sand for offshore structures. Perth꞉ University of Western Australia.
[13] Lehane B M, Schneider, J A and Xu X (2005b). A review of design methods for offshore driven piles in siliceous sand. Perth꞉ University of Western Australia.
[14] Paik K and Salgado R (2003). Determination of bearing capacity of open‑ended piles in sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng, 129(1), pp. 46‑57.
[15] Paik K H and Lee D R (1993). Behavior of soil plugs in open ended model piles driven into sands. Marine
Georesources Geotechnlogy, 11(4), pp. 353‑373.
[16] Paikowsky S G, Whitman R V and Baligh M M (1989) A new look at the phenomenon of offshore pile plugging. Marine Geotechnology, 8(3), pp. 213‑230.
[17] PLAXIS (2019). PLAXIS CONNECT Edition V20 Manual. The Netherlands꞉ Plaxis bv, Bentley Systems
[18] Robertson P K and Campanella R G (1983). Interpretation of cone penetration tests꞉ Part I꞉ Sand. Can. Geotech. J., 20, pp. 718‑733
[19] Robertson P K, Campanella R G and Wightman A (1983). SPT‑CPT Correlation. J. Geotech. Eng., 109(11), pp. 1449‑1459.
[20] Saitou Y, Kikuchi Y, Kusakabe O, Kiyomiya O, Yoneyama H and Kawakami T (2011). Application of steel pipe pile loading tests to design verification of foundation of the Tokyo Gate Bridge. J. Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. C (Geosphere Engineering), 67(4), pp. 544‑557 (In Japanese)
[21] Shea V, Li D, Shum D and Chu F (2022) Large diameter open‑end steel piled foundations for the Hong Kong offshore LNG terminal – design and installation. Proc. of The HKIE Geotechnical Division 42nd Annual Seminar꞉ A New Era of Metropolis and Infrastructure Developments in Hong Kong, Challenges and Opportunities to Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 174‑186.
[22] Vesic A S (1970). Tests on instrumented piles, Ogeechee River Site. J. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 96(2), pp. 561‑584
[23] Yang J (2006). Influence Zone for End‑Bearing of Piles in Sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng, ASCE, 132(9), pp. 1229‑1237.
[24] Yang Z, Jardine R, Guo W and Chow F (2015). A new and openly accessible database of tests on piles
driven in sands. Géotechnique Letters, 5(1), pp. 12‑20
[25] Yu F and Yang J (2012a). Base capacity of openended Steel Pipe Piles in Sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng, ASCE, 138, pp. 1116‑1128
[26] Yu F and Yang J (2012b). Improved evaluation of interface friction of steel pipe pile in sand. J. Performance Constructed Facilities, ASCE, 26, pp.170‑179.
